Ingestion and inhalation are the main human exposure routes, and smaller particles, especially nanoplastics, may drive oxidative stress, inflammation and cell injury. Major gaps remain in realistic exposure levels and long-term outcomes, and the authors call for standardized methods.
A 2026 review in Microplastics (MDPI) covering literature from 2020 to 2026 on microplastic sources, environmental movement and human exposure. It examines how weathering alters particle surfaces and what in vitro, animal and human tissue studies show about toxicity.
